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Journal of the Acoustical Society of America

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Jul 1975

Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 2-283

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Motor vehicle noise spectra, their characteristics and dependence upon operating parameters

Ralph K. Hillquist and William N. Scott

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 2-10 (1975); (9 pages)

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Data obtained from many sources are used to describe the physical characteristics of traffic noise, its individual components, and some of the means for reducing motor vehicle noise. The noise characteristics of trucks, automobiles, and motorcycles are discussed separately. The composite of all motor vehicle noise (traffic noise) is described in terms of the operating parameters of interest, including vehicle speed, engine speed, throttle position, engine type, tire‐tread type, and road surface smoothness.
Subject Classification: 10.60; 50.25, 50.50.
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43.50.+y Noise: its effects and control

Noise radiated by internal‐combustion engines

A. J. Brammer and D. Muster

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 11-21 (1975); (11 pages)

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The surfaces of an internal‐combustion engine can be expected to radiate sound resulting from time‐varying gas and mechanical forces developed during the operating cycle. The rapid pressure rise accompanying spontaneous ignition of the fuel within the combustion chamber leads to the characteristic ’’knocking’’ noise of diesel engines. In contrast, the rate of change of pressure within the cylinders of spark‐ignition engines is comparatively slower, which results in less intense gas forces. Further, impacts between the piston and cylinder walls, or deformation of the crank mechanism, may be responsible for the noise of some engines. In both cases vibrational energy is radiated primarily by the crankcase and by nonstructural parts, such as the oil pan and valve covers. For air‐cooled engines there is significant radiation from the cylinder‐cooling fins. Engine‐radiated noise may dominate the overall noise spectrum of diesel‐powered trucks at speeds near 30 mph.
Subject Classification: 10.60; 50.30, 50.50.
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43.50.+y Noise: its effects and control

Internal‐combustion engine intake and exhaust system noise

Erich K. Bender and Anthony J. Brammer

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 22-30 (1975); (9 pages) | Cited 1 time

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In this paper the state of the art of characterizing and controlling intake and exhaust system noise of internal‐combustion engines is reviewed. Various types of internal‐combustion engines are discussed as sources of noise and in terms of their interaction with intake and exhaust systems. A review of muffler technology shows that linear resistive and reactive effects are well understood, as are certain nonlinear effects. However, effects of high sound pressure levels, flow, duct perforations, and temperature gradients all acting together require study. The paper also shows that mufflers providing 30–35 dBA of insertion loss are practical and that insertion loss can be predicted, but only roughly.
Subject Classification: 10.60; 50.30, 50.50.
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43.50.+y Noise: its effects and control

Aerodynamic noise from motor vehicles

Robert C. Chanaud and Douglas Muster

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 31-38 (1975); (8 pages)

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In motor vehicles there are two primary sources of aerodynamic sound: the engine‐cooling fan and the interaction of either the entire vehicle or some of its components with the airstream created by vehicle movement. The mechanisms for sound generated by these sources are discussed in terms of the associated physical parameters (fan size, fan‐blade design, cooling‐air velocity and path, etc.; body configuration, interior design, etc.).
Subject Classification: 10.60; 50.50, 50.55.
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43.50.+y Noise: its effects and control

Tire–road interaction noise

William A. Leasure, Jr. and Erich K. Bender

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 39-50 (1975); (12 pages) | Cited 1 time

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The relative importance of tire noise to overall vehicle noise is established. A general description is then given of the tire engineering process and of tire structures. The important parameters influencing tire noise are discussed, based on presently available data, followed by an identification of unknown and contradictory areas. The basic mechanisms of tire‐noise generation, although not well understood, are investigated largely from a theoretical viewpoint. Areas for future research and development are identified based on gaps in the existing physical data base and a rather primitive level of understanding of noise‐generating mechanisms.
Subject Classification: 10.60; 50.50, 50.30.
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43.50.+y Noise: its effects and control

Deep‐scattering‐layer observations off New Zealand and comparison with other volume scattering measurements

W. E. Batzler

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 51-71 (1975); (21 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Acoustic volume scattering measurements using 5 and 12 kHz pulses and explosive signals were made during the 1971 winter season at 18 deep‐water stations north and east of Auckland, New Zealand. Strong scattering layers (maximum volume scattering strengths −58 to −70 dB re 1 yd) were observed at depths of about 500 yd during daytime measurements at both 5 and 12 kHz. The number, location and depth of minor scattering layers are the principal station differences. Column strengths (column length about 1000 yd) obtained from pulse measurements do not vary greatly from station to station and show good agreement with column strengths from explosive measurements. Night values of column strength are higher, with one exception, than day values. The explosive results covering 1/3‐octave bands from 1 to 20 kHz have overall column strengths ranging from −70 to −40 dB. A characteristic frequency pattern, in which a sharp rise in column strength from 1 to 5 kHz is followed by a fairly constant level thereafter, is exhibited on all stations. Comparison of the New Zealand data with that from other ocean areas (Indian Ocean, Coral Sea, Hawaii, Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, Southern California) shows that New Zealand scattering strengths are relatively high and that the characteristic frequency pattern is of widespread occurrence. The prevalence of this pattern suggests a mechanism common to all these locations. Midwater fishes differing in species from area to area but having a common range of swimbladder sizes are believed the cause of this characteristic frequency pattern.
Subject Classification: 30.30,30.40.
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92.10.Vz Underwater sound

Focusing properties of a solid four element ultrasonic lens

D. L. Folds and J. Hanlin

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 72-77 (1975); (6 pages)

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A multielement cylindrical lens fabricated from polystyrene and an unfilled silicone polymer has been developed with angular resolution in the order of 0.2 deg at 1000 kHz. Theoretical and experimental work shows the lens maintains good performance over a 20‐deg field of view with insignificant temperature‐induced defocusing in the 10 ° to 25 °C temperature range. Tolerance analyses completed during the lens design resulted in reasonable mechanical tolerances being required during fabrication.
Subject Classification: 30.85; 35.80.
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92.10.Vz Underwater sound
43.35.-c Ultrasonics, quantum acoustics, and physical effects of sound

Generalized expansions of ray theory in terms of phase velocity. I.

Melvin A. Pedersen, DeWayne White, and David W. Johnson

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 78-96 (1975); (19 pages)

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This is the first of a sequence of papers, which develop ray‐theory expressions for velocity profiles with depth dependence only where the velocity is expressed as a generalized power series in depth. The method treats nonanalytic as well as all analytic (i.e., expandable in a Taylor series in depth) profiles. This first paper is limited to profile expansions about a velocity minimum and to the case of rays which turn around in a layer. Here the ray‐theory results may be expressed as generalized power series in the phase velocity. Ray‐theory range, travel time, range derivatives, phase integral function, and group velocity are treated. The method treats certain profiles, which were heretofore regarded as insolvable in closed form. Even when alternative approaches are tractable, the method has certain advantages. These include simpler and more accurate computing techniques, ease of range derivative evaluation, and improved understanding of theoretical results. Complete derivations are presented and results are verified by comparing the new method solutions with classical results for the linear, hyperbolic cosine, and exponential profiles.
Subject Classification: 30.20, 30.25; 20.20.
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92.10.Vz Underwater sound
43.20.+g General linear acoustics

Application of ray theory to acoustic propagation in horizontally stratified oceans

Henry Weinberg

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 97-109 (1975); (13 pages) | Cited 3 times

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The acoustic pressure due to a point harmonic source in a horizontally stratified ocean is represented as a multipath expansion of the integral representation. Generalized Wentzel–Kramers–Brillouin–Jeffreys solutions are used to solve the depth‐dependent wave equation. By applying numerical integration in conjunction with stationary phase, the problem of caustics is eliminated. Computed predictions are compared with theoretical results and another computer model.
Subject Classification: 30.20; 20.20; 85.84.
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92.10.Vz Underwater sound
43.20.+g General linear acoustics
43.58.+z Acoustical measurements and instrumentation

Ultrasonic absorption in air at elevated temperatures

H. E. Bass and Roy G. Keeton

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 110-112 (1975); (3 pages)

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The attenuation of a 1 MHz ultrasonic signal has been measured in 78%N2/22%O2 at temperatures of 302 °K, 467 °K, and 689 °K and pressures from 1 atm to 1/60 atm. The measured attenuation was corrected for classical effects to obtain the attenuation due to rotational relaxation. In addition, the total absorption has been compared to computed values based on a linear combination of viscous, thermal conduction, diffusion, and relaxation losses to check the constants used for each of these terms. The rotational relaxation time of the mixture was found to be 7×10−10, 10×10−10, and 21×10−10 sec atm at 302 °K, 467 °K, and 689 °K, respectively.
Subject Classification: 35.20, 35.35.
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43.35.-c Ultrasonics, quantum acoustics, and physical effects of sound

Nonlinear resonances in a class of multi‐degree‐of‐freedom systems

S. Sridhar, A. H. Nayfeh, and D. T. Mook

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 113-123 (1975); (11 pages)

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An analysis is presented of the superharmonic, subharmonic, and combination resonances in a multi‐degree‐of‐freedom system which has cubic nonlinearity and modal viscous damping and is subject to harmonic excitation. It is shown that in the absence of internal resonances, the steady‐state response contains only the modes which are directly excited. It is shown that in the presence of internal resonances, modes other than those that are directly excited can appear in the response. The strong influence of internal resonances is exhibites in numerical examples involving hinged–clamped beams. It is shown that when a multimode solution exists the lowest mode can dominate the response, even when it is not directly excited.
Subject Classification: 40.30, 40.20.
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43.40.+s Structural acoustics and vibration

Aircraft community noise research and development; a historical overview

V. L. Blumenthal, R. E. Russell, and J. M. Streckenbach

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 124-143 (1975); (20 pages)

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The paper summarizes noise‐reduction research and development programs of The Boeing Company from the early 1950s to the present time. It discusses the background for each program and presents the end results obtained or progress made. Acoustic treatments are described that permit all current Boeing turbofan†powered commercial aircrafdt models to comply with applicable U.S. Government and international noise rules. Benefits attainable through noise‐abatement operating procedures are included. The paper concludes with a discussion of unsolved problems that need attention by the scientific community to permit continuing reductions in aircraft noise.
Subject Classification: 50.40, 50.50, 50.55, 50.75.
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43.50.+y Noise: its effects and control

Development of noise‐reduction concepts for the 707 airplane

M. D. Nelsen and V. E. Callaway

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 144-154 (1975); (11 pages)

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Flyover noise characteristics are presented for the Boeing 707‐300B/C equipped with standard production nacelles and with experimental quiet nacelles modified by the addition of sound‐absorbing materials. Acoustic‐treatment theory and technology required to develop the quiet nacelles are discussed. Results from, and techniques for, noise‐certification flight testing to meet FAA regulations are presented. Comparisons of noise levels of a modified 707 aircraft, noise floors, and noise from other operational aircraft are provided.
Subject Classification: 50.40, 50.50, 50.55, 50.75.
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43.50.+y Noise: its effects and control

Development of noise‐reduction concepts for 727 and 737 airplanes

C. L. Arctander, C. G. Hodge, and R. B. Tate

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 155-172 (1975); (18 pages)

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A review is given of various noise‐reduction concepts pertinent to JT8D‐powered 727 and 737 airplanes, with emphasis on acoustic technology. Acoustic treatment for engine fan noise reduction is shown to result in production airplane configurations that comply with existing FAR Part 36 regulations for new airplanes. Two jet noise suppression concepts aimed at further 727 noise reduction are discussed. An ejector/suppressor concept that has been demonstrated in an FAA‐sponsored ground and flight test program is shown to achieve 6‐ to 8‐EPNdB suppression of jet noise at takeoff power. Airplane performance penalties, however, have precluded production application of this configuration. The refan concept, currently under development on a NASA contract, involves JT8D engine modifications to incorporate a higher work‐extraction fan. This modification realizes lower jet noise that, when coupled with extensive acoustic treatment, results in significant noise reductions with a minimum impact on airplane performance.
Subject Classification: 50.40, 50.50, 50.55, 50.75.
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43.50.+y Noise: its effects and control

Nose‐reduction programs for DC‐8 and DC‐9 airplanes

R. L. Frasca

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 173-191 (1975); (19 pages)

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A summary review is presented of the results of current and recently completed noise‐reduction programs for DC‐8 and DC‐9 airplanes. The relationship of these programs to other efforts by Douglas to develop quieter CTOL airplanes is briefly outlined. The engine/nacelle concepts studied were (1) application of nacelle acoustic treatment, (2) variable‐area exhaust nozzles, (3) jet exhaust noise suppressors, and (4) engines with larger diameter new front fans. Acoustic analyses leading to the selection of certain engine/nacelle configurations are described, as well as design constraints which limit the noise‐reduction capability of certain designs. Acoustic design features of the modified engine/nacelles are discussed along with estimates of the changes in aircraft community noise levels, as well as estimates of the changes in aircraft weight, performance, cost, and operational restrictions. The noise‐reduction estimates for the DC‐8 and DC‐9 are based on ground runup and flyover noise tests. Comments are presented on the potential noise‐reduction benefits, and associated aircraft operational problems, resulting from noise‐abatement operating procedures.
Subject Classification: 50.40, 50.50, 50.30, 50.55, 50.75.
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43.50.+y Noise: its effects and control

Validity of aircraft noise data

C. A. Sekyra, W. C. Storey, and R. Yates

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 192-196 (1975); (5 pages)

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An analysis of noise measurements taken at various distances from a number of aircraft during noise flight testing is presented. Data scatter is shown to increase with distance and with decreasing aircraft/observer angle. Data normalization techniques, utilizing current standards, are inadequate at large distances and low airplane/observer angles. Aircraft noise measurements taken under uncontrolled situations are of doubtful value in predicting community noise. Noise measurements obtained directly beneath the airplane flightpath, under carefully controlled conditions, are highly repeatable and adjustable for moderate distances (within 1 to 2 EPNdB); however, when adjusted to sideline distances, these data can lead to variations on the order of 5 EPNdB. The accuracy of these sideline noise estimates is of prime concern since they are used to determine aircraft noise ’’footprints’’ in noise‐exposure studies. Because a 3‐EPNdB change in EPNL can lead to area halving or doubling, it is concluded, based on current technology, that the use of footprints in community noise‐impact studies can be extremely misleading.
Subject Classification; 50.20, 50.75, 50.80.
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43.50.+y Noise: its effects and control

Community noise survey of Cincinnati, Ohio

Jacques B. Malchaire and Sanford W. Horstman

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 197-200 (1975); (4 pages)

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In a field investigation of noise levels in Cincinnati, Ohio, 20‐min noise recordings were made at 19 sites during 19 weekdays, at ten different times, according to an incomplete Latin‐square statistical plan. L10, L50, and L90 values were determined for each sample. An analysis of variance was carried out separately for each of the three parameters and the significance of sampling hours and days analyzed. L10 and L90 values were found highly correlated to L50 values (r = 0.96 and 0.93). However, the L10 − L90 difference which is the basis of the Traffic Noise Index was found to be poorly correlated to L50 levels (r = 0.44).
Subject Classification: 50.70; 50.75.
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43.50.+y Noise: its effects and control

Optimum signal processing for passive sonar range and bearing estimation

William Robert Hahn

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 201-207 (1975); (7 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Optimum signal processing for passive sonar target range and bearing estimation is discussed for the case where the sonar array consists of an M‐element linear array of hydrophone point detectors whole individual outputs are corrupted by sensor‐to‐sensor‐independent self‐noises of arbitrary power spectra. By comparing the measurement error covariance matrix to the Cramér–Rao matrix bound the system performance, relative to the theoretical optimum, is determined. Further, the Cramér–Rao bound is used to determine an optimum signal processor. The optimum processor is configured as a set of M (M‐1)/2 cross‐correlator delay estimators (one for each hydrophone pair), followed by a Gauss–Markov estimation of the array delay vector (target steering vector), which in turn is followed by a linear weighting of the estimated delay vector elements to determine a bearing estimate and a range estimate. The processor is shown to have the Cramér–Rao matrix bound for its measurement error covariance matrix.
Subject Classification: 60.30; 30.82.
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43.60.+d Acoustic signal processing
92.10.Vz Underwater sound

Comparison between the growth of the averaged electroencephalic response and direct loudness estimations

M. C. Botte, Z. Bujas, and R. Chocholle

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 208-213 (1975); (6 pages)

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The question of the validity of the auditory‐averaged electroencephalic responses (auditory AER) in auditory research and in audiometry is a very important one. In the present experiments, auditory AER and direct estimates of loudness magnitude were conducted concurrently on the same subjects, in the hope of reducing the consequences of the great within‐subject and between‐subject variability always encountered in such experiments, and of the differences in the degree of alertness. The peak‐to‐peak amplitude of the N1 − P2 waves and the N1 and P2 latencies were used as characteristics of the auditory AER. Even in these conditions, no clear relations appeared between the AER and the loudness estimations. The discussion shows that they are probably not directly connected.
Subject Classification: 65.59, 65.50.
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42.66.-p Physiological optics

Anthropometric manikin for acoustic research

M. D. Burkhard and R. M. Sachs

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 214-222 (1975); (9 pages) | Cited 35 times

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A manikin for hearing aid and related acoustic research was designed with median human adult dimensions. Ear simulation matches the acoustic response with an auricle, an ear canal, and an eardrum that equal the median ear in dimensions, acoustic impedance and modes. Dimensions of torso and head are based on published anthropometric data, but the auricle is based on data obtained for this development. The ear canal and eardrum are adapted from the earlike coupler by Zwislocki. The ear entrance sound pressure was found to be relatively insensitive to surface or skin impedance of the head. Validating measurements show the manikin, designated KEMAR, to be like a median human in acoustic response to free fields.
Subject Classification: 65.22, 65.80, 65.35,65.82.
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42.66.-p Physiological optics

Holographic interferometry applied to the investigation of tympanic‐membrane displacements in guinea pig ears subjected to acoustic impulses

A. L. Dancer, R. B. Franke, P. Smigielski, F. Albe, and H. Fagot

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 223-228 (1975); (6 pages) | Cited 1 time

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The displacements of the tympanum of guinea pigs undergoing the action of acoustic impulses were investigated using holographic interferometry. The motion of the umbilicus is approximately 7.5 times smaller than that of the maximum elongation point of the tympanic membrane located between the umbilicus and the annulus fibrocartilagineus in the prolongation of the manubrium mallei. The results attempt to explain why tympanic lesions originated under the action of acoustic impulses frequently appear in the lower area of the pars tensa in the case of guinea pigs. The holographic visualization of tympanic‐membrane displacements appears to offer a number of practical applications allowing to throw light into the transmission of acoustic energy at the level of the tympanic membrane.
Subject Classification: 65.24; 35.65; 80.50.
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42.66.-p Physiological optics
43.35.-c Ultrasonics, quantum acoustics, and physical effects of sound
43.80.-n Bioacoustics

Loudness enhancement: monaural, binaural, and dichotic

Robert Elmasian and Robert Galambos

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 229-234 (1975); (6 pages) | Cited 5 times

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When one tone burst (Tc) precedes another (S1) by 100 msec, variations in the intensity of Tc systematically influence the loudness of S1. When Tc is more intense than S1, S1 is increased; and when Tc is less intense, S1 loudness is decreased. This occurs in monaural, binaural, and dichotic paradigms of signal presentation. When Tc and S1 are presented to the same ear (monaural or binaural) there is more enhancement with less intersubject variability than when they are presented to different ears (dichotic paradigm). Monaural enhancements as large as 30 dB can readily be demonstrated but decrements rarely exceed 5 dB. Possible physiological mechanisms are discussed for this loudness enhancement, which apparently shares certain characteristics with time‐order error, assimilation, and temporal partial masking experiments.
Subject Classification: 65.50, 65.62.
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42.66.-p Physiological optics

Masking patterns for continuous and gated sinusoids

Barry Leshowitz and Edward Cudahy

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 235-242 (1975); (8 pages) | Cited 1 time

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The masking of a brief tonal signal by continuous and gated sinusoids was investigated. Masking patterns depicting the threshold of a signal of frequency fs as a function of masker frequency fm for the two masker presentations were compared. In the frequency region fm ≳ fs, the briefly presented gates masker was always a more effective masker than the continuous steady‐state background, even under conditions in which energy spread of the gated masker was minimized. For fm < fs, the gated–continuous threshold shift, sometimes called the ’’overshoot,’’ reversed when a low‐level background noise was added to the tonal nasker in order to mask audible combination tones. The presence of combination tones in the steady‐state masker condition precluded application of a simple energy detection model in the frequency region fm < fs. An attempt to simulate the results for fm ≳ fs with an energy‐detection scheme in conjunction with a detailed spectral analysis of the stimuli was also unsuccessful.
Subject Classification: 65.58, 65.50, 65.75.
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42.66.-p Physiological optics

Signal–noise duration, psychophysical procedure, interaural configuration, and the psychometric function

Eli Osman

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 243-248 (1975); (6 pages)

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Effects on locations and slopes of psychometric functions are reported for 2IFC and YN tasks as a function of the duration (particularly 10–125 msec) of synchronously gated tone bursts (400 Hz) and noise bursts (broad‐band, Gaussian) under homophasic (NOSO) and antiphasic (NOSπ) listening conditions. Emphasis is placed on the finding that slopes are consistently lower at 10 msec as opposed to 125 msec for synchronously gated tone and noise, and the effect is not dependent on either psychophysical procedure or interaural configuration. Published results for continuous noise maskers suggest that such a duration dependency does not appear. Slopes do not seem to be affected by either interaural configuration, psychophysical procedure, or masker continuity condition for 125‐msec signals. Large threshold increases occur at the short duration only under YN listening, and are largest for NOSπ. The nature of combined threshold and slope shifts may be incompatible with existing detection theories.
Subject Classification: 65.60, 65.58, 65.75; 50.70.
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42.66.-p Physiological optics
43.50.+y Noise: its effects and control

Physiological correlates of intonation patterns

René Collier

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 58, Issue 1, pp. 249-255 (1975); (7 pages) | Cited 1 time

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An experiment has been performed to assess to what degree laryngeal muscle activity and subglottal air pressure affect the rate of vocal cord vibration in speech. Attention has been limited to those changes in the rate of vocal cord vibration that are associated with the physiological implementation of prosodic phenomena such as intonation and prominence. Subglottal air pressure was measured directly through a catheter inserted between the cricoid and thyroid cartilages. Using hooked‐wire electrodes, the electromyographic activity was recorded in the right‐ and left‐side cricothyroid muscle and in the sternohyoid, sternothyroid, and thyrohyoid muscles. The data were collected for one subject, a native speaker of Dutch. The results of the experiment show that, in this particular speaker, (1) cricothyroid muscle activity bears the most direct relationship to all major F0 changes, in that the contraction of this muscle raises F0 while its relaxation has an F0 lowering effect: (2) subglottal air pressure controls the gradually falling base line of the F0 contour and gives support to a rapid F0 drop if it occurs on the utterance‐final syllable; and (3) the sternohyoid, sternothyroid, and thyrohyoid muscles have no direct effect on F0.
Subject Classification: 70.20, 70.70.
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43.70.-h Speech production
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