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Journal of the Acoustical Society of America

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Oct 1967

Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 725-914

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Acoustic Wave Generation by Entropy Discontinuities Flowing Past an Area Change

Elizabeth Cuadra

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 725-732 (1967); (8 pages)

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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A solution is presented for the strengths of the two weak pressure waves produced by an entropy wave of finite strength being convected (in a subsonic flow) past an infinitestimal area change. Such an entropy wave may be either a temperature discontinuity in a single gas or an interface between two different gases. The strengths of the generated pressure waves according to this nonlinear solution are compared with previous (unpublished) results for an infinitesimal temperature discontinuity, and the sensitivity of the wave strengths to the physical parameters of the problem is given. This solution has been combined with other (existing) interaction solutions required to construct a computer program for prediction of the sound produced by the passage of a “bubble” (composed of two such interfaces) in an infinite pipe. A deck of program cards is available from the author upon request.

Introduction to Acoustical Holography

Alexander F. Metherell, Hussein M. El‐Sum, John J. Dreher, and Lewis Larmore

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 733-742 (1967); (10 pages) | Cited 5 times

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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The principle of reconstructed wavefronts is extended to the formation of visual pictures of acoustical waves. The important relationships used in conventional optical holography that also apply to acoustics are briefly reviewed. It is shown that image formation using the principles of acoustical holography yields better results than do conventional acoustical lens systems, particularly in the presence of turbulence and turbidity. Experiments are described in which coarsely sampled acoustical holograms, made with sound wavelengths of 0.64 in. and longer, have successfully reconstructed images of acceptable quality. The signal‐to‐noise ratio in a sampled acoustical hologram is shown to increase with the number of sampled points as well as with the reduction in the size of the sampling probe. Applications of acoustical holography in different fields are discussed.

Measurement of Room Absorption by Steady‐State and Decay‐Rate Methods

Stanley F. Huber

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 743-750 (1967); (8 pages)

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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Steady‐state and decay‐rate methods of measuring A2, the total sound absorption in the receiving room of a transmission‐loss experiment, were compared to determine how well they agreed. The results of a series of experiments under controlled laboratory conditions showed a very close agreement between the two methods, with differences averaging less than half a decibel ia measurements of 10 log10 A2. These results indicate that a steady‐state method may be substituted for the reverberation‐time method in measuring A2 without sacrificing the accuracy of laboratory measurements of airborne sound transmission loss of building partitions.

Aural Harmonics: The Masking of a 2000‐Hz Tone by a Sufficient 1000‐Hz Fundamental

T. Dean Clack

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 751-758 (1967); (8 pages)

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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Aural harmonic distortion is generated in normal ears with a constant 1000‐Hz fundamental (f1) while the listener traces his threshold for an interrupted 2000‐Hz (f2) objective tone. Both tones are presented simultaneously to the same ear with the consequent variations in the masked thresholds recorded during manipulations of the time relation between f1 and f2. The technique and preliminary results are described in the first part of this report. These data show that the threshold shift (TS), produced with an f1 of 60 or 65 dB sensation level (SL), depends critically upon the phase relation of f2 to f1: The TS varies sinusoidally as f2 is phase shifted through one or two complete cycles. Section II presents a discussion of the assumptions used to explain these results. Accordingly, a harmonic series is generated within the ear, vectorial summation occurs between the aural harmonic (AH) and the objective tone, and the task of the listener is to maintain this resultant at some level. An electronic analog model shows that, under these assumptions, the objective f2 would undergo variations approximating sine waves if the AH is at a low effective level compared to that needed to attain audibility. The experiment of Section III confirmed that the general equation, Y  =  A1 + A2 sin (x+ϕ), provides a satisfactory description of the variations in TS. In addition, a prediction was derived concerning the phase conditions causing maximum interference, both constructive and destructive. The changes in TS associated with these two phase conditions are approximately equal and opposite as predicted. In fact, the objective f2 is heard at lower intensities than under quiet listening conditions when the f1 intensity was increased up to 60 dB (SPL). This rather bizarre reversal of the usual masking phenomenon, owing to augmentation between the AH and objective f2, was anticipated from the model.

Model of the “Secondary” Residue Effect in the Perception of Complex Tones

Henryk Fischler

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 759-764 (1967); (6 pages)

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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The phenomenon of tonal residue in stimulation of the hearing system by sinusoidally amplitude‐modulated tones is examined for its correlation with the temporal fine structure displacements of the basilar membrane. It is suggested that the deviations of the residue pitch from magnitudes anticipated on account of the stimulus pattern at the input to the ear (in anharmonic complexes) represent a secondary effect only. Probably, these deviations arise from the phase modulation of the major carrier peaks of the resultant basilar‐membrane displacements, evoked during passage of the stimulating signal to the cochlea. The phase modulation is due to asymmetry introduced the sideband energy of the stimulus as a result of the mechanical filtering by the inner ear. Representing a phenomenon in the time domain, the secondary residue effect is examined as a function of various compositions of the stimulating tone, at various locations along the basilar membrane. It is argued that the magnitude of the effect decreases with the harmonic‐number relation between the carrier and modulation frequencies of the stimulus. Possibly, the region on the basilar membrane pertinent to characteristic frequencies lower than (but close to) the central component of the stimulating signal contributes most to determining the magnitude of the secondary effect.

Signal‐Detection Theory Applied to Selective Listening

Neville Moray and T. O'Brien

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 765-772 (1967); (8 pages)

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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Recently, two papers have appeared that have applied signal detection theory to selective listening. Both have certain defects, and the present paper is intended to clarify some of the issues raised by the earlier papers. Broadbent and Gregory (1963) used a tone detection task on one ear while presenting a memory load to the other and found that d′ but not β altered for the detection task. Treisman and Geffin (1967) recently reported on the “shadowing” situation (continuous repetition of an ongoing message) and again found evidence that d′ but not β was affected. Treisman interpreted her results to mean that selection of input, not of response, was operative, basing her conclusions on the way in which the subject responded to homophones and homonyms. Detection of signals was signaled by the subject tapping the microphone. Unfortunately, Treisman was forced to use pooled data for the estimation of d′ and β, which involved some strong assumptions about the relative performance of individual subjects. The present experiment was designed to provide a relatively “pure” selective listening task for the applicability of signal detection theory to the process of selective attention.

Theory of Signal Detectability: Adaptive Optimum Receiver Design

L. W. Nolte

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 773-777 (1967); (5 pages)

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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The theory of adaptive optimum receiver design is presented and its relationship to the classical theory of signal detectability of Peterson, Birdsall, and Fox is presented. The classical theory concentrated on the function description; i.e., the optimum detector for a fixed observation procedure is one that forms the likelihood ratio. Optimum detection performance depends on this input‐output relationship. This paper concentrates a more detailed description of the optimum detector; i.e., its realization or implementation. It is shown how optimum detectors can be implemented in a sequential manner, resulting in a receiver configuration that is adaptive. The sequential nature of the adaptive implementation is one in which both a classification and detection output is readily available and, in addition, the design is such that the terminal time of the observation need not be known a priori. The adaptive optimum receiver design theory stresses the use of the receiver memory.

Matching Functions and Equal‐Sensation Contours for Loudness

Strange Ross

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 778-793 (1967); (16 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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Loudness balances were collected from three subjects, employing 57 combinations of 13 frequencies extending from 20 to 5000 cps. Determinations were made from levels close to threshold to the highest levels tolerable by the subjects, with 5‐dB intervals. Stimuli were applied by an earphone through individually moulded ear inserts, and were measured in decibels sound‐pressure level a few millimeters from the eardrum. For each subject, a symmetric and transitive subset of the data was employed for constructing a set of matching functions and a set of equal‐loudness contours. Matching functions generally were linear, or showed a double inflection (in log‐log coordinates). Equal‐loudness contours generally agree with previous determinations, but show a steeper rise towards low frequencies; below 300 cps, and at medium levels, the contours approach straight lines with a slope of −40 dB/decade. Obtained matching functions are compared to three sets of theoretical functions, favoring the matching functions derived from loudness theories developed by Zwicker and by Zwislocki.

Encoding of Stimulus Frequency and Intensity by Cat Superior Olive S‐Segment Cells

Chiyeko Tsuchitani and James C. Boudreau

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 794-805 (1967); (12 pages)

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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S‐segment units exhibit definite absolute thresholds. Cells with similar characteristic frequency (CF) have similar thresholds. Stimulus intensity increases elicit monotonic increases in spike output up to a limiting plateau. The number of spikes at plateau is highly correlated with the dynamic range over which increases are seen. Stimulation with tones higher in frequency than the CF results in lower plateaus and smaller dynamic ranges. Only a limited band of frequencies can maximally stimulate a cell within normal intensity ranges.

Application of Complex‐Variable Theory to the Determination of the Fundamental Frequency of Vibrating Plates

Paul A. Shahady, Ralph Passarelli, and Patricio A. Laura

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 806-809 (1967); (4 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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This study deals with the determination of the fundamental frequency of vibration of plates of complicated shape. The method makes use of conformal mapping and variational techniques. In the case of a square plate, the results obtained are in good agreement with the exact values. Numerical results are also presented for a circular plate with two flat sides and several plates of regular polygonal shape.

Simple Method for Identifying Acceptable Noise Exposures

James H. Botsford

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 810-819 (1967); (10 pages)

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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A simple method for identifying acceptable noise exposures has been developed from the NAS‐NRC CHABA report describing hazardous exposures to intermittent and steady‐state noise. First, an interrupted exposure was imagined in which the noise dropped to harmless levels periodically, thereby creating a number of identical exposure cycles distributed uniformly throughout the day. Next, the total duration of noise allowable per day was calculated for 39 different patterns of interrupted exposure using the CHABA graphs. This total noise duration permissible daily increased rapidly with the number of interruptions, passed through a maximum value for interruptions about 5 min in length, and became constant for noise interrupted every 2 min or oftener. Nine general contours of equinoxious octave‐band sound pressure levels evolved from this analysis, and the A‐weighted sound level equivalent to each contour was determined for noises of manufacturing industries. It is concluded that acceptable manufacturing‐noise exposures can be identified as accurately by using A‐weighted sound levels as is possible by using octave‐band sound‐pressure levels.

Predicting Binaural Gain in Intelligibility and Release from Masking for Speech

H. Levitt and L. R. Rabiner

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 820-829 (1967); (10 pages) | Cited 15 times

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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A simple, approximate procedure for predicting binaural gain in intelligibility and release from masking for detection of speech in broadband Gaussian noise is presented. The procedure assumes that the effect of binaural processing in the auditory system can be adequately represented by a frequency‐dependent reduction in the level of the masking noise. The magnitude of this reduction is derived from data on release from masking for tones. Predictions of intelligibility are based on the Articulation Index as computed for the equivalent masking noise. It is predicted that the binaural gain in intelligibility for speech in white noise is greatest at low intelligibility levels, decreasing to about 3 dB at high intelligibility levels. The relative importance of low‐ and high‐frequency interaural phase opposition in producing a binaural gain in intelligibility depends on the signal‐to‐noise (S/N) ratio. Low‐frequency interaural phase opposition is of greater importance at low S/N ratios. Release from masking for detection represents a limiting case, the binaural gain being roughly 13 dB and dependent primarily on interaural phase information below about 500 Hz. Predictions based on this procedure are fairly consistent with data obtained in an earlier experiment. More data are required, however, for an adequate assessment of the technique. The implications for practical binaural systems are discussed.

On the Rôle of Formant Transitions in Vowel Recognition

B. E. F. Lindblom and M. Studdert‐Kennedy

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 830-843 (1967); (14 pages) | Cited 10 times

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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An inventory of speechlike sounds was synthesized displaying systematic variations of the rate and direction of formant transitions. These sounds were specified by a set of vowel formant patterns selected along a continuum varying from [U] to [I] they were assigned to isolated, steady‐state vowels, and to the points of zero rate of formant frequency change in symmetrical consonant‐vowel‐consonant syllables. The time variations of formant frequencies were made convex and concave by the choice of two consonantal frames: [w‐w] and [j‐j]. The results obtained in a series of vowel identification experiments indicate that a listener's categorization of the continuum varied as a function of the environment and the duration of the vowel. These findings suggest that, in the recognition of monosyllabic nonsense speech, the identity of a vowel is determined not solely by the formant‐frequency pattern at the point of closest approach to target, but also by the direction and rate of adjacent formant transitions. In general, subjects adjusted their categorizations of the continuum in the consonantal contexts in such a way that complete transitions between loci and vowel target were not necessary: the transitions were permitted to undershoot the target frequencies for the vowel. In particular, the excursions of formants in the [w‐w] syllables tended to be overestimated. Thus, there was a tendency for the categorizations to be made so as to compensate for the formant‐frequency undershoot associated with vowel reduction [B. Lindblom, “Spectrographic Study of Vowel Reduction,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 35, 1773–1781 (1963)]. The effects observed are discussed in terms of an active model of vowel recognition, peripheral auditory analysis, distinctive features, and previously reported observations on vowel perception.

Multiple Relaxation in Gaseous Dibromomethane

Gaylord T. Hageseth

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 844-847 (1967); (4 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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Sound‐absorption measurements have been made in gaseous dibromomethane at a temperature of 296°K and at pressures between 10 and 31 mm. A traveling wave tube with a frequency range of 1000 to 4000 cps was used to determine the attenuation coefficient of the progressive waves. An anomalous absorption was found at an unusually low frequency and is attributed to a molecular relaxation process. (At least two other relaxations at high frequency are known.) A single relaxation curve fitted to the data points yielded a maximum intensity absorption coefficient per wavelength at 40 kcps/atm, which corresponds to a relaxation time of 4.6×10−6 sec. When hydrogen was added as an impurity, the absorption peak increased in magnitude but the relaxation time decreased only slightly. Based upon the specific heat contribution of each mode, two different modal assignments are possible in accounting for the multiple relaxations.

High‐Temperature Ultrasonic Measurements of Rotational Relaxation in Hydrogen, Deuterium, Nitrogen, and Oxygen

Thomas G. Winter and Garnett L. Hill

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 848-858 (1967); (11 pages) | Cited 27 times

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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The velocity and absorption of sound in normal hydrogen, deuterium, nitrogen, and oxygen have been measured from room temperature to 1000°C and from 0.7 to 40 MHz/atm. This frequency range encompasses the rotational relaxation of H2 and D2, but it is below the frequency of maximum absorption in N2 and O2. It was found that the frequency of maximum absorption always decreases with increasing temperature as predicted by Parker, and just the opposite of vibrational relaxation behavior. Absorption measurements on H2 at 22°C nearly fit a single relaxation curve, but the 800°C data show that multiple relaxations must exist. The frequency of maximum absorption shifts from 13 MHz/atm at 22°C to 5 MHz/atm at 800°C in H2, and from 15 MHz/atm to 4 MHz/atm in D2. While it was not possible to cover the entire absorption region in N2 or O2, single relaxation theory fitted to the available data indicates that the frequency of maximum absorption of both gases is approximately the same and shifts from above 300 MHz/atm at 23°C to 45 MHz/atm at 1000°C.

Calculation of the Acoustic Power Radiated by a Monopole in a Reverberation Chamber

G. C. Maling, Jr.

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 859-865 (1967); (7 pages)

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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The acoustic power W radiated by a harmonic monopole of strength Q located in a rectangular reverberation chamber has been calculated by using an eigenfunction expansion of the Green's function. An expression for the sound intensity valid for small normal admittance β has been integrated over the chamber surfaces to determine the power output. The results are within approximately ±2 dB of the results obtained by Waterhouse and Cook when the source is near one or more reflecting surfaces. At low frequencies, the ratio of W to the free‐space output W0 varies with source position within the chamber, and has been treated statistically. The space‐averaged value of W/W0 is generally less than unity, but values in the range 0.1–10.0 occur for particular values of frequency and β. The normalized standard deviation of W/W0 lies in the range 0.3–0.4 for β=0.05, and increases as β decreases. The results are applicable to the choice of an optimum absorption characteristic for low‐frequency pure‐tone power‐level measurements.

Radiative Damping of Sound Waves

Robert F. Stein and E. A. Spiegel

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 866-869 (1967); (4 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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The classical investigation of radiative damping of sound waves by Stokes is generalized to the case of arbitrary ratio of acoustic wavelength to photon mean free path.

Evaluation of Robey's First Reactance Integral for Small ka

William Thompson, Jr.

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 870-872 (1967); (3 pages)

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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The first of two integrals representing the self‐radiation reactance loading on a finite‐length uniformly vibrating cylinder bracketed by two semi‐infinite‐length rigid cylindrical baffles is evaluated for small ka where k is the acoustic wavenumber, and a the cylinder radius.

Damped Response of an Elastically Connected Double‐Beam System Due to a Cyclic Moving Load

P. G. Kessel and T. F. Raske

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 873-881 (1967); (9 pages)

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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The damped response of an elastically connected double‐beam system due to a moving‐point load that oscillates longitudinally along one of the members about a fixed point is examined analytically. The deflection equations are determined for a damped double‐beam system for two cases: (1) the beams have individual damping, and (2) damping is introduced as a function of the relative velocity of the two beams. The analysis shows the relative importance of the infinite number of load movement frequencies that will excite a given principal frequency of the system for the rth mode of vibration. Numerical results are presented for the two cases for both equal and unequal beams and show the effects of damping, frequency of oscillation of load movement, amplitude of load movement, and modulus of the elastic connectors on the dynamic deflections of the system. The results also show the ability of the system to act as an elastic vibration absorber.

Acoustic Properties of Sediments

Loyd D. Hampton

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 882-890 (1967); (9 pages) | Cited 4 times

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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This is a summary of an experimental study to measure the acoustic properties of water‐saturated sediments. The sediments used were laboratory prepared to allow control of physical parameters (such as grain size, volume concentration, compressibility, etc.) and to approximate natural sediments. Acoustic velocity and attenuation in the sediments were measured over the frequency range 4–600 kHz. Acoustic measurements were made at high frequencies by means of two probes inserted in the sediments, and at low frequencies by means of a specially constructed rigid‐wall standing‐wave tube. The data presented show the frequency dependence of attenuation and velocity in the laboratory‐prepared sediments and the change in this frequency dependence with changes in physical parameters of the sediments. Sediments composed of pure kaolinite, or kaolinite and sand up to 15% (by weight), show an f1.37 frequency dependence of attenuation. Sediments with greater than 30% sand (by weight), including pure sand, exhibit an f0.5 frequency dependence of attenuation. The measured velocity dispersion approximately 2% over the frequency range 4–200 kHz. Velocity increases with frequency. All measurements reported are for sediments free of entrapped gas.
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Number of Pulses Required for Minimal Pitch

Irwin Pollack

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 895-895 (1967); (1 page) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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The number of pulses required for minimal pitch was determined. For pulse intervals longer than 1 msec, appromixately a constant number of pulses is required: about three. For pulse intervals shorter than 1 msec. approximately a constant duration is required, about 3 msec. The results are in close agreement with findings for the click pitch of pure tones.

Analysis of Musical Sounds by Fourier Transform Methods

Eli Metzger

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 896-897 (1967); (2 pages)

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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It is proposed that, since musical sounds are never periodic—if for no other reason than the fact that they are of finite duration—they should be analyzed by a Fourier integral rather than series. A continuous frequency spectrum results, whose width is larger the shorter the tone is. The effect of this frequency spread is examined for two tones, a finite sine, and an exponentially decayed sine.

Transitions in American English /s/ as Cues to the Identity of Adjacent Stop Consonants

M. F. Schwartz

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 897-899 (1967); (3 pages)

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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A study was designed to investigate the role of perceived changes is /s/ as cues to the identity of adjacent stop consonants. Ten normal‐speaking young adults recorded the words last, rasp, and task on a high‐quality tape system. Three copies were made of the recording. Two of the copies were subjected to an editing procedure: in one, the final release was removed from each word; in the other, the /s/ as well as the release were removed. Each of the copies was presented, via loudspeaker, to a separate group of 10 normal‐hearing young adults who were instructed to listen to the stimuli and to transcribe what they heard, using phonetic notations, The results indicated that perceived changes in /s/ were important cues to the Identity of /p/ and /k/, but not /t/.

Sound Absorption in Mixtures of Oxygen and Water Vapor

R. George Harlow and M. E. Nolan

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 899-900 (1967); (2 pages)

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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Measurements of the absorption of sound in mixtures of oxygen and water vapor are given. The results agree closely with those of H. and L. Knotzel; Harris and Tempest; and Henderson, Clark, and Lintz. They can be described by the equation:
math
, where f0 is the frequency of maximum absorption in hertz at a pressure of 1 atm and h is the molar fraction of water vapor × 103. The measurements suggest that the results of Harlow and Kitching were subject to error due to surface adsorption.

Effect of End Conditions on the Lateral Frequencies of Uniform Straight Columns

Chintakindi L. Amba‐Rao

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 42, Issue 4, pp. 900-901 (1967); (2 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 21 Jul 2005

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Calculations of fundamental frequencies in lateral vibration are made for straight bars under compressive loads for various fractions (less than one) of the Euler load for a number of boundary conditions. As the compressive load on the bar increases, the fundamental natural frequency decreases. The rate of decrease increases as one proceeds in the following order; clamped free, hinged/hinged. clamped/hinged, and clamped/clamped. Besides their usefulness for design purposes, the results find an application in problems, of dynamic stability.
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