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Jan 1956

Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 1-164

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back to top Session D. Psychoacoustics and Hearing
Contributed Papers
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Observations on the Relationship between Frequency Discrimination and Psychological Phenomena (A)

Bertram M. Harrison

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 153-153 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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Extensive use of the frequency discrimination method of hearing testing has inspired an effort to correlate certain of the results with psychological characteristics of the subjects. Tabulation of the data has led to some conclusions which have interesting possibilities.
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Intelligibility Increase Accompanying Time Interval between Ears (A)

Earl D. Schubert

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 153-153 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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Comparisons were made of the intelligibility of continuous speech in noise under three listening conditions: Speech arriving simultaneously and in phase at the two ears; speech arriving at one ear later than the other; and speech arriving simultaneously, but in opposite phase in one ear. Time intervals between ears ranged from 200 microseconds to 7 milliseconds. Delaying speech to one ear under these conditions does increase intelligibility but is little, if any, better than the simple expedient of phasing the phones. With the materials and method used, the maximum increase occurs with a delay between ears somewhere between 0.5 and 1 msec, though there is some indication that delays 1 msec and longer may be slightly better under the most difficult listening conditions tried.
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Dependence of Localization on Azimuth (A)

S. V. Galginaitis

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 153-154 (1956); (2 pages)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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In a study to determine binaural thresholds for azimuth difference [Schmidt, Van Gemert, De Vries, and Duyff, Acta Physiol. Pharmacol. Neerl. 3, 2–18 (1953)] it was found that, at high enough frequencies, one or more regions of low localization sensitivity exist at the higher azimuth values. This suggests the use of a “null” method as a useful technique to gather information on the localization process. Two loudspeakers, whose separation could be changed, were sounded alternately. The subject, seated in a rotating chair, could change his azimuth at will. The regions in which the subject seems to hear the sound coming from only one source are then determined. For frequencies below about 1200 cps, only two such regions exist, at the expected 90° and 270°. For frequencies above about 1400 cps, more than two such regions exist. At intermediate frequencies, two or more regions may exist, depending on speaker separation. Possible explanations for these results will be discussed.
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Attenuation of Ear Protectors by Loudness Balance Methods (A)

J. Hershkowitz and L. Levine

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 154-154 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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The attenuation of several ear protectors has been measured by a loudness balance technique in which the subject, upon removal of the device, raised the ambient sound level to match loudness to that which existed while wearing the ear protectors. Results were obtained for half‐octave bands of thermal noise in a diffuse sound field and for single frequency tones in free field. Attenuation measured by the former method was less at both low and high frequencies than for the latter. Both loudness balance methods gave lower values than had been anticipated from published data based on the absolute threshold method.
back to top Session F. Macrosonics
Invited Papers
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On Macronsonics and Periodic Shock Waves (A)

G. E. Hudson

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 154-154 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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Since the time of Stokes, there has been an ever‐increasing number of investigations of anomalies in sonic phenomena when the conditions of linear acoustics are not fulfilled. Some recent theoretical and experimental studies in this direction are discussed. For example, observations show the occurrence of periodic shocks in a Kundt's tube with a piston amplitude of only ⅛ inch. The laws which these satisfy are investigated as well as the use of such experiments to study the structure of shock fronts, collision of shocks, and ionization by shocks. A first‐order description of the periodic flow pattern is obtained from elementary considerations.
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High‐Intensity Sound and Shock Waves (A)

Joseph B. Keller

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 154-154 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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High‐intensity sound, or macrosonics, differs from ordinary sound in its manner of propagation. All parts of an ordinary sound wave travel with the same speed (the sound speed). However, in high‐intensity sound the pressure maxima travel faster than the pressure minima. Consequently, high‐intensity sound waves become distorted as they travel. This distortion may become so extreme that a discontinuity or shock wave develops when a maximum tries to overtake a minimum. Such a shock wave will start out very weak but will grow in size and then, perhaps, decay again. All of these effects are illustrated by the example of a piston moving periodically at one end of a semi‐infinite tube. The free vibration of the gas in a closed tube is also examined and found to be modified by the foregoing effects. Similarly the sound waves produced by a piston at one end of a closed tube are found to be affected, in some cases shocks developing and in other cases the wave forms merely being distorted. Similar phenomena occur in three dimensions, as can be seen from a new theory of the propagation of high‐intensity sound in three dimensions. This theory includes a new phenomenon, the possibility of refraction caused by intensity variations on a wave front. It also leads to shock formation in certain cases, and describes the way in which the shocks propagate, grow, and decay. The theory is an extension of a previous theory of weak shocks which was called geometrical acoustics. It too is a geometrical theory.
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Some Second‐Order Effects in Macrosonics (A)

Peter J. Westervelt

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 155-155 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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The force owing to radiation pressure on an object of any shape and having an arbitrary normal boundary impedance can be expressed in terms of the asymptotic scattering functions for the object [J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 23, 312 (1951)]. It will be shown that this specification of the radiation force is valid for any obstacle irrespective of whether it is possible to specify a normal boundary impedance. Two typical obstacles having nonlocal boundary conditions are a metal disk and a lossy bubble. A simple relation between the radiation pressure in a plane standing acoustic wave and the acoustic impedance will be given. Equations for the generation of acoustic streaming have been derived in terms of Brillouin's radiation stress tensor [J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 25, 60 (1953)]. It is emphasized that these equations are valid for any nonreacting fluid irrespective of the loss mechanisms involved. For the special case of a barotropic fluid, W. P. Raney has shown that these equations reduce to those obtained by Medwin and Rudnick [J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 25, 538 (1953)]. [This work has been supported jointly by the Office of Naval Research and the U. S. Air Force, Wright Air Development Center.]
Contributed Papers
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Modified Analysis for Plane Traveling Waves of Finite Amplitude (A)

Richard D. Fay

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 155-155 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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The speed of propagation of the pressure in a sound wave may be expressed by S  =  S0 [1 + A (1 + 1/γ) (p/P0) + ⋯], where A is a pure number. In the classical analysis A  =  ½, whereas reliable measurements, both of the rate of attenuation of a repeated saw‐tooth wave and of the rate of increase of the second harmonic in an initially sinusoidal wave, indicated that A  ≃  ⅓. An analysis of a rectangular wave in a fictitious fluid medium without viscosity indicates that ⅓ is in fact the correct theoretical value for A. In such a wave, the ratio of the density in the wave to the density in the undisturbed medium may be accurately expressed in terms of the speed of propagation and the particle velocity. The speed, S, can then be found from a criterion for energy conservation. Assuming that the density is given by this same relationship in a traveling wave of any form, it is found that both pressure and velocity are propagated at a speed in which A  =  ⅓. The difficulties in justifying this assumption on theoretical grounds have not yet been overcome.
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Acoustic Streaming Resulting from a Resonant Bubble (A)

S. Elder and W. L. Nyborg

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 155-155 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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Detailed study has been made of the second‐order velocity (vortex) field near a resonant bubble, as well as of the first‐order (sound) pressure field. The bubble is situated on the surface of a 10‐kc vibrating diaphragm at the bottom of a transparent‐walled vessel. The pressure field was explored with a small BaTiO3 probe. The streaming field was examined by observing the motion of small particles through a binocular microscope. The fields have been studied as a function of amplitude and of the viscosity of the liquid surrounding the bubble. At least three separate regimes of streaming may be observed at different sound amplitudes. For one of these regimes, the streaming pattern is found to vary with acoustic boundary layer thickness in a manner analogous to that which has been reported by others for streaming near small solid obstacles. “Source” mechanisms for the generation of the streaming will be discussed. Several aspects of the problem appear to be important: (1) interaction of the bubble‐scattered spherical wave with the plane boundary; (2) special physical properties of the bubble surface as affected by contaminants; and (3) the influence of surface (“capillary”) vibrating modes. [This work was supported jointly by the U. S. Air Force and the Office of Naval Research.]
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Acoustic Streaming in the Vicinity of a Sphere (A)

Robert W. Thrasher and P. J. Westervelt

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 155-155 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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Considerable work has been done recently on the problem of acoustic streaming in the vicinity of a cylinder [Holtzmark, Johnsen, Sikkeland, and Skavlem, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 26, 26 (1954); Raney, Corelli, and Westervelt, ibid. 26, 1006 (1954); S. Skavlem and S. Tjötta, ibid. 27, 27 (1955)]. Carlton Lane has completed an extension of this work to the case of a sphere [J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 27, 1003(A) (1955)]. Although Lane uses the approximation method of Raney et al., this present project applies the numerical integration method of Holtzmark et al. to the sphere. A precise stream function obtained by Lane has been integrated exactly to obtain an expression containing algebraic and trigonometric components and the exponential integral. From this expression it is possible to obtain streamlines which are accurate at greater distances from the sphere and for lower frequencies than those of Lane. [This work has been supported by the National Science Foundation and the U. S. Air Force, Wright Air Development Center.]
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Radiation Force Acting on a Sphere in a Cylindrical Sound Field (A)

T. F. W. Embleton

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 155-155 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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Corresponding problems of the radiation forces acting on a rigid spherical obstacle in a progressive plane or spherical sound field have been examined previously [L. V. King, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A147, 212–240 (1934); T. F. W. Embleton, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 26, 40–46 (1954)]. In these cases the sound field and scattering obstacle both have symmetry about the line joining the center of the obstacle to the source of the sound field, but for a cylindrical field there exists only a lower degree of symmetry. A more general expression has now been obtained for the radiation force in terms of the complex amplitudes of spherical harmonics required to synthesize the incident sound field—for the cases of greater symmetry this reduces to the simpler expressions previously obtained. The first 20 nonzero amplitudes have been evaluated for a cylindrical sound field, and it is shown that the force is one of attraction near the source, becomes zero at a certain distance, and at a greater distance is a force of repulsion. This is qualitatively the same as for spherical waves, but for any given size of obstacle or frequency of the sound field the point of zero force is always nearer to the source in a cylindrical field. Experimental results will be reported.
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On Acoustic Momentum Flux and Radiation Pressure (A)

J. S. Pyett

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 156-156 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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The explanation of acoustic radiation pressure in terms of momentum flux, often given for problems in one dimension, also may be used for some problems in three dimension. The case of a small spherical obstacle in a plane progressive wave is treated specifically, the force resulting from radiation pressure on the sphere being obtained by considering the momentum flux in the primary field and the secondary (scattered) field. The force is, in general, not proportional to the scattering cross section.
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A Simple Radiation Pressure Float for the Measurement of Ultrasonic Output (A)

George E. Henry

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 156-156 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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A simple radiation pressure float can be used to measure the gross acoustic power beamed upward into a body of liquid by a transducer having lateral dimensions that are large compared to a wavelength. This float balances the upthrust of acoustic radiation force against the downward force of gravity, assuming an equilibrium position of partial immersion in the liquid. The preferred design eliminates any need for external guides or constraints: the float is self‐centering. Criteria for a successful design are set forth. The interpretation of radiation pressure measurements is discussed briefly.
back to top Session G. Acoustic Instrumentation
Invited Paper
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Electronic Control of Noise, Vibration, and Reverberation (A)

Harry F. Olson

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 156-156 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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Existing inactive materials are inadequate to cope with many problems in the control of noise, vibration, and reverberation. It is only within quite recent times that active systems have been given consideration for the control of sound. The electronic sound absorber [H. F. Olson and E. G. May, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 25, 1130 (1953)] is an example of an active type sound absorber. The electronic sound absorber consists of a microphone, amplifier, and loudspeaker connected in an inverse feedback manner. The electronic system reduces the effective acoustical impedance in the vicinity of the absorber. As a consequence, the electronic sound absorber may be used in the manner of a conventional sound absorber or as a zone‐type sound reducer. The electronic vibration reducer consists of a sensor, amplifier, and driver connected either in negative or positive feedback fashion. The electronic vibration reducer may be used to isolate vibrating machines or to reduce the vibration of machines.
Contributed Papers
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Transient Performance of Transducers for Ultrasonic Materials Inspection. Background (A)

H. E. Van Valkenburg

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 156-156 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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A review of the development and scope of ultrasonic materials inspection by the method of pulsed wave trains; industrial applications of particular interest; brief description of instrumentation in widespread use today; problems relating to transient operation of transducers for Reflectoscope search units.
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Transient Performance of Transducers for Ultrasonic Materials Inspection (A)

E. G. Cook

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 156-156 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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A report of the investigation of pulsed transducers being progressed at the Sperry Products Engineering Laboratory; use of new mathematical and experimental techniques to analyze transient performance of thickness mode x‐cut quartz plates; acoustic output for electrical inputs of step‐function, sharp unidirectional pulse, and sine wave packet; a low‐pass filter technique for short‐pulse generation.
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A Direct‐Reading Acoustical Impedance Meter (A)

R. M. Carrell

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 156-156 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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A device for the measurement of acoustical impedance is described which employs a high impedance source, monitored by a ribbon element acting as an acoustical ammeter. The output of the ribbon acts through an automatic volume control circuit to maintain constant the volume current injected into the impedance under test. The sound pressure so developed is proportional to the absolute acoustical impedance and is measured by a high impedance probe microphone. The ribbon element also serves as a phase angle reference for the unknown impedance. The total acoustical path length from the ribbon to the diaphragm of the probe microphone is kept to an absolute minimum.
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Iron‐Aluminum Alloys for Use in Magnetostrictive Transducers (A)

M. T. Pigott

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 156-156 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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A systematic determination of the electromechanical coupling coefficient k has been made for Fe‐Al alloys containing aluminum percentages between 12 and 14 by weight and annealed at temperatures between 600°C and 1100°C. For annealing temperatures in the neighborhood of 1000°C, k2 is about equal to 0.05 and is nearly independent of composition, a result in agreement with earlier measurements of Masumoto. For lower annealing temperatures, k2 becomes sensitive to composition, the highest value measured being equal to 0.12 for an alloy containing 12.3% Al and annealed at 650°C. In all cases eddy current losses are lower for Fe‐Al than for soft annealed “A” nickel.
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Calibration of Stiff Microphones by Means of a Grille (A)

Henry Gerber

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 156-157 (1956); (2 pages)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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The grille method of microphone calibration utilizes the electrostatic force of attraction between the microphone diaphragm and another electrode. It is shown in this paper that the above method can be applied to the calibration of very stiff microphones which require a large driving force to give a measurable output. The maximum pressure which can be achieved depends on the breakdown voltage between the electrodes, the allowable distortion, and the desired accuracy of measurement. These factors are examined in detail, and it is shown that a very accurately measurable pressure greater than 50 microbars can be exerted on a microphone diaphragm. Experimental data confirming the theoretical results are given.
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Description of Altec 21‐BR Type Microphones and Operating Characteristics (A)

J. K. Hilliard and W. T. Fiala

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 157-157 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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The details of construction of the 21‐BR miniature condenser microphones and associated power supply are given. Factors contributing to inherent electrical noise, acceleration, and microphonic outputs are analyzed. Microphone sensitivities, frequency response, polar patterns, and operating temperatures are given. Accessory equipment for field calibration, probe tube use, and linearity tests will be described.
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Modifications to Improve the Efficiency of a Diaphone‐Type Fog Horn (A)

G. J. Thiessen

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 157-157 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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The use of a high impedance acoustical load for the type B diaphone is capable of raising the efficiency of the fog horn system from an often encountered 0.2% to values of 10 to 16% for normal operating pressures. The high impedance is provided by a resonant exponential or catenoidal horn. To provide the high degree of frequency stability required by the high Q resonant load the mechanical impedance of the diaphone piston is reduced to permit it to lock in with the horn frequency. The piston impedance is reduced by reducing its mass through the use of an aluminum alloy and by supporting it on a central shaft thus reducing (and stabilizing) the frictional forces. The stability thus achieved is such that the frequency varies only 3% for an air supply pressure change from 5 to 35 psi.
back to top Session H. General Acoustics
Invited Papers
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Turbulence and Intense Sound Fields (A)

Robert H. Kraichnan

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 157-157 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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A brief review is given of present experimental and theoretical knowledge of phenomena involving interaction of strong sound fields and turbulence. Consideration is given to the scattering of sound and shock waves by turbulence, the generation of noise by turbulence, and the effect of intense noise fields or strong resonances on the evolution of a turbulent flow. Differences are pointed out in the nature of the interactions for the cases of weak and strong sound and turbulence fields. When the particle velocities associated with the sound field and turbulence are quite small compared to the velocity of sound, the interaction is essentially nonenergetic, the dominant phenomenon being the “elastic“ scattering of sound by turbulence. For higher excitations, however, theoretical considerations indicate that inertial transfer forces tend to bring about an equipartition of acoustic and turbulent energy. This implies that, in addition to the phenomenon of the generation of noise by strong turbulence, there should exist situations in which some of the energy of a localized intense sound field is transformed into kinetic energy of turbulent motion and situations in which substantial energy transfer accompanies the scattering of sound and turbulence. A discussion is given of the physical interaction mechanisms involved in these phenomena, and the question considered of their realization in physical systems. [Support of the U. S. Air Force, Wright Air Development Center, is acknowledged.]
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On Thermo‐Acoustic Transduction in a Potential Flow (A)

Osman K. Mawardi

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 157-157 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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The interaction between an acoustic field and a thermal field is worked out for the case of a sound wave propagating down a channel in which the convection of heat occurs in a potential flow. The analysis restricted to inviscid fluids shows that the magnitude of the sound wave is reinforced as it propagates through the thermal field. The extent of this reinforcement is given in the form of an amplification factor which depends on the parameter of the flow and on the frequency of the sound wave. [This work was supported in part by the U. S. Air Force under Contract No. AF 33(616)‐149.]
Contributed Papers
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Effect of a Ground Layer on the Field within a Temperature‐Created Shadow Zone (A)

David C. Pridmore‐Brown

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 157-157 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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The sound field from a point source located in an infinite half‐space above a plane boundary has been studied for the case where the half‐space is separated from the plane by a layer of a given thickness. The acoustic properties of the two regions are specified by their temperature gradients. The temperature gradient in the ground layer can be arbitrary, whereas that in the upper half‐space is considered to diminish monotonically with the height. The source may be located either within the ground layer or above it. The purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the presence of such a layer might alter the sound field which one calculates when it is absent. In the absence of the ground layer the sound field in the shadow zone is approximately represented by the first mode in a Fourier Bessel expansion, which decays at a rate determined by the ground impedance. The analysis indicates that although the presence of the ground layer does not destroy this shadow region, it may alter the decay rate of the sound field within it. [Supported by Contract NAw‐6405 with National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.]
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Experimental Study of the Scattering of Sound by Flowing Turbulence (A)

George Lamb, Jr., Richard H. Lyon, David C. Pridmore‐Brown, and Uno Ingard

J. Acoust. Soc. Am. Volume 28, Issue 1, pp. 158-158 (1956); (1 page)

Online Publication Date: 29 Jun 2005

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The method used in experimental study of the scattering of sound by sound reported earlier [J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 27, 1002(F3) (1955) and National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Contract NAw‐6405 report, March 23, 1955] is applied in a corresponding investigation of scattering of sound by a turbulent flow. The turbulent region is a “sheet” jet emanating from a diffuser. A monochromatic ultrasonic beam is passed through the sheet, and scattered energy having a continuous frequency spectrum is measured on the back side of the sheet. The angular distribution for various frequencies is measured. It is found that the angular location of the maxima of scattering can be predicted from a simple Doppler shift calculation assuming that the turbulent velocity field is not changing with time. In fact, the angle of a scattering maximum with frequency f0 (1 + Δ) is obtained from sin θ = [Δ/M (1 + Δ)], where M is the Mach number of the flow. The angle of scattering θ is positive for downstream angles, negative for upstream angles. Our work is essentially directed toward the experimental verification of these simple theoretical predictions. The relation above has been checked for various values of Δ and M with fairly good agreement between predicted values and experimental results. [Supported by Contract NAw‐6405 with National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.]
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